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Rabu, 29 September 2010

Narative

contoh - contoh narrative text

The Fox and The Crow
A Fox once saw a Crow fly off with a piece of cheese in its beak and settle on a branch of a tree.
"That's for me, as I am a Fox," said Master Reynard, and he walked up to the foot of the tree.
"Good day, Mistress Crow," he cried. "How well you are looking today: how glossy your feathers; how bright your eye. I feel sure your voice must surpass that of other birds, just as your figure does; let me hear but one song from you that I may greet you as the Queen of Birds."
The Crow lifted up her head and began to caw her best, but the moment she opened her mouth the piece of cheese fell to the ground, only to be snapped up by Master Fox.
"That will do," said he. "That was all I wanted. In exchange for your cheese I will give you a piece of advice for the future: "Do not trust flatterers."

The Wolf in Sheep's ClothingA Wolf found great difficulty in getting at the sheep owing to the vigilance of the shepherd and his dogs. But one day it found the skin of a sheep that had been flayed and thrown aside, so it put it on over its own pelt and strolled down among the sheep.
The Lamb that belonged to the sheep whose skin the Wolf was wearing began to follow the Wolf in the Sheep's clothing. So, leading the Lamb a little apart, he soon made a meal off her - and for some time he succeeded in deceiving the sheep, and enjoying hearty meals.
Appearances are deceptive.

The Ugly Duckling

It was lovely summer weather in the country, and the golden corn, the green oats, and the haystacks piled up in the meadows looked beautiful. The stork walking about on his long red legs chattered in the Egyptian language, which he had learnt from his mother. The corn-fields and meadows were surrounded by large forests, in the midst of which were deep pools. It was, indeed, delightful to walk about in the country. In a sunny spot stood a pleasant old farm-house close by a deep river, and from the house down to the water side grew great burdock leaves, so high, that under the tallest of them a little child could stand upright. The spot was as wild as the centre of a thick wood. In this snug retreat sat a duck on her nest, watching for her young brood to hatch; she was beginning to get tired of her task, for the little ones were a long time coming out of their shells, and she seldom had any visitors. The other ducks liked much better to swim about in the river than to climb the slippery banks, and sit under a burdock leaf, to have a gossip with her.
At length one shell cracked, and then another, and from each egg came a living creature that lifted its head and cried, "Peep, peep."
"Quack, quack," said the mother, and then they all quacked as well as they could, and looked about them on every side at the large green leaves. Their mother allowed them to look as much as they liked, because green is good for the eyes.
"How large the world is," said the young ducks, when they found how much more room they now had than while they were inside the egg-shell.
"Do you imagine this is the whole world?" asked the mother; "Wait till you have seen the garden; it stretches far beyond that to the parson's field, but I have never ventured to such a distance. Are you all out?" she continued, rising; "No, I declare, the largest egg lies there still. I wonder how long this is to last, I am quite tired of it;" and she seated herself again on the nest.
"Well, how are you getting on?" asked an old duck, who paid her a visit.
< 2 >
"One egg is not hatched yet," said the duck, "it will not break. But just look at all the others, are they not the prettiest little ducklings you ever saw? They are the image of their father, who is so unkind, he never comes to see."
"Let me see the egg that will not break," said the duck; "I have no doubt it is a turkey's egg. I was persuaded to hatch some once, and after all my care and trouble with the young ones, they were afraid of the water. I quacked and clucked, but all to no purpose. I could not get them to venture in. Let me look at the egg. Yes, that is a turkey's egg; take my advice, leave it where it is and teach the other children to swim."
"I think I will sit on it a little while longer," said the duck; "as I have sat so long already, a few days will be nothing."
"Please yourself," said the old duck, and she went away.
At last the large egg broke, and a young one crept forth crying, "Peep, peep." It was very large and ugly. The duck stared at it and exclaimed, "It is very large and not at all like the others. I wonder if it really is a turkey. We shall soon find it out, however when we go to the water. It must go in, if I have to push it myself."
On the next day the weather was delightful, and the sun shone brightly on the green burdock leaves, so the mother duck took her young brood down to the water, and jumped in with a splash. "Quack, quack," cried she, and one after another the little ducklings jumped in. The water closed over their heads, but they came up again in an instant, and swam about quite prettily with their legs paddling under them as easily as possible, and the ugly duckling was also in the water swimming with them.
"Oh," said the mother, "that is not a turkey; how well he uses his legs, and how upright he holds himself! He is my own child, and he is not so very ugly after all if you look at him properly. Quack, quack! come with me now, I will take you into grand society, and introduce you to the farmyard, but you must keep close to me or you may be trodden upon; and, above all, beware of the cat."
< 3 >
When they reached the farmyard, there was a great disturbance, two families were fighting for an eel's head, which, after all, was carried off by the cat. "See, children, that is the way of the world," said the mother duck, whetting her beak, for she would have liked the eel's head herself. "Come, now, use your legs, and let me see how well you can behave. You must bow your heads prettily to that old duck yonder; she is the highest born of them all, and has Spanish blood, therefore, she is well off. Don't you see she has a red flag tied to her leg, which is something very grand, and a great honor for a duck; it shows that every one is anxious not to lose her, as she can be recognized both by man and beast. Come, now, don't turn your toes, a well-bred duckling spreads his feet wide apart, just like his father and mother, in this way; now bend your neck, and say "quack."
The ducklings did as they were bid, but the other duck stared, and said, "Look, here comes another brood, as if there were not enough of us already! and what a queer looking object one of them is; we don't want him here," and then one flew out and bit him in the neck.
"Let him alone," said the mother; "he is not doing any harm."
"Yes, but he is so big and ugly," said the spiteful duck "and therefore he must be turned out."
"The others are very pretty children," said the old duck, with the rag on her leg, "all but that one; I wish his mother could improve him a little."
"That is impossible, your grace," replied the mother; "he is not pretty; but he has a very good disposition, and swims as well or even better than the others. I think he will grow up pretty, and perhaps be smaller; he has remained too long in the egg, and therefore his figure is not properly formed;" and then she stroked his neck and smoothed the feathers, saying, "It is a drake, and therefore not of so much consequence. I think he will grow up strong, and able to take care of himself."
"The other ducklings are graceful enough," said the old duck. "Now make yourself at home, and if you can find an eel's head, you can bring it to me."
< 4 >
And so they made themselves comfortable; but the poor duckling, who had crept out of his shell last of all, and looked so ugly, was bitten and pushed and made fun of, not only by the ducks, but by all the poultry. "He is too big," they all said, and the turkey cock, who had been born into the world with spurs, and fancied himself really an emperor, puffed himself out like a vessel in full sail, and flew at the duckling, and became quite red in the head with passion, so that the poor little thing did not know where to go, and was quite miserable because he was so ugly and laughed at by the whole farmyard. So it went on from day to day till it got worse and worse. The poor duckling was driven about by every one; even his brothers and sisters were unkind to him, and would say, "Ah, you ugly creature, I wish the cat would get you," and his mother said she wished he had never been born. The ducks pecked him, the chickens beat him, and the girl who fed the poultry kicked him with her feet. So at last he ran away, frightening the little birds in the hedge as he flew over the palings.
"They are afraid of me because I am ugly," he said. So he closed his eyes, and flew still farther, until he came out on a large moor, inhabited by wild ducks. Here he remained the whole night, feeling very tired and sorrowful.
In the morning, when the wild ducks rose in the air, they stared at their new comrade. "What sort of a duck are you?" they all said, coming round him.
He bowed to them, and was as polite as he could be, but he did not reply to their question. "You are exceedingly ugly," said the wild ducks, "but that will not matter if you do not want to marry one of our family."
Poor thing! he had no thoughts of marriage; all he wanted was permission to lie among the rushes, and drink some of the water on the moor. After he had been on the moor two days, there came two wild geese, or rather goslings, for they had not been out of the egg long, and were very saucy.
< 5 >
"Listen, friend," said one of them to the duckling, "you are so ugly, that we like you very well. Will you go with us, and become a bird of passage? Not far from here is another moor, in which there are some pretty wild geese, all unmarried. It is a chance for you to get a wife; you may be lucky, ugly as you are."
"Pop, pop," sounded in the air, and the two wild geese fell dead among the rushes, and the water was tinged with blood. "Pop, pop," echoed far and wide in the distance, and whole flocks of wild geese rose up from the rushes. The sound continued from every direction, for the sportsmen surrounded the moor, and some were even seated on branches of trees, overlooking the rushes. The blue smoke from the guns rose like clouds over the dark trees, and as it floated away across the water, a number of sporting dogs bounded in among the rushes, which bent beneath them wherever they went. How they terrified the poor duckling! He turned away his head to hide it under his wing, and at the same moment a large terrible dog passed quite near him. His jaws were open, his tongue hung from his mouth, and his eyes glared fearfully. He thrust his nose close to the duckling, showing his sharp teeth, and then, "splash, splash," he went into the water without touching him, "Oh," sighed the duckling, "how thankful I am for being so ugly; even a dog will not bite me." And so he lay quite still, while the shot rattled through the rushes, and gun after gun was fired over him. It was late in the day before all became quiet, but even then the poor young thing did not dare to move. He waited quietly for several hours, and then, after looking carefully around him, hastened away from the moor as fast as he could. He ran over field and meadow till a storm arose, and he could hardly struggle against it.
Towards evening, he reached a poor little cottage that seemed ready to fall, and only remained standing because it could not decide on which side to fall first. The storm continued so violent, that the duckling could go no farther; he sat down by the cottage, and then he noticed that the door was not quite closed in consequence of one of the hinges having given way. There was therefore a narrow opening near the bottom large enough for him to slip through, which he did very quietly, and got a shelter for the night. A woman, a tom cat, and a hen lived in this cottage. The tom cat, whom the mistress called, "My little son," was a great favorite; he could raise his back, and purr, and could even throw out sparks from his fur if it were stroked the wrong way. The hen had very short legs, so she was called "Chickie short legs." She laid good eggs, and her mistress loved her as if she had been her own child. In the morning, the strange visitor was discovered, and the tom cat began to purr, and the hen to cluck.
< 6 >
"What is that noise about?" said the old woman, looking round the room, but her sight was not very good; therefore, when she saw the duckling she thought it must be a fat duck, that had strayed from home. "Oh what a prize!" she exclaimed, "I hope it is not a drake, for then I shall have some duck's eggs. I must wait and see."
So the duckling was allowed to remain on trial for three weeks, but there were no eggs. Now the tom cat was the master of the house, and the hen was mistress, and they always said, "We and the world," for they believed themselves to be half the world, and the better half too. The duckling thought that others might hold a different opinion on the subject, but the hen would not listen to such doubts.
"Can you lay eggs?" she asked.
"No."
"Then have the goodness to hold your tongue."
"Can you raise your back, or purr, or throw out sparks?" said the tom cat.
"No."
"Then you have no right to express an opinion when sensible people are speaking."
So the duckling sat in a corner, feeling very low spirited, till the sunshine and the fresh air came into the room through the open door, and then he began to feel such a great longing for a swim on the water, that he could not help telling the hen.
"What an absurd idea," said the hen. "You have nothing else to do, therefore you have foolish fancies. If you could purr or lay eggs, they would pass away."
"But it is so delightful to swim about on the water," said the duckling, "and so refreshing to feel it close over your head, while you dive down to the bottom."
"Delightful, indeed!" said the hen, "why you must be crazy! Ask the cat, he is the cleverest animal I know, ask him how he would like to swim about on the water, or to dive under it, for I will not speak of my own opinion; ask our mistress, the old woman; there is no one in the world more clever than she is. Do you think she would like to swim, or to let the water close over her head?"
"You don't understand me," said the duckling.
"We don't understand you? Who can understand you, I wonder? Do you consider yourself more clever than the cat, or the old woman? I will say nothing of myself. Don't imagine such nonsense, child, and thank your good fortune that you have been received here. Are you not in a warm room, and in society from which you may learn something. But you are a chatterer, and your company is not very agreeable. Believe me, I speak only for your own good. I may tell you unpleasant truths, but that is a proof of my friendship. I advise you, therefore, to lay eggs, and learn to purr as quickly as possible."
< 7 >
"I believe I must go out into the world again," said the duckling.
"Yes, do," said the hen. So the duckling left the cottage, and soon found water on which it could swim and dive, but was avoided by all other animals, because of its ugly appearance.
Autumn came, and the leaves in the forest turned to orange and gold. Then, as winter approached, the wind caught them as they fell and whirled them in the cold air. The clouds, heavy with hail and snow-flakes, hung low in the sky, and the raven stood on the ferns crying, "Croak, croak." It made one shiver with cold to look at him. All this was very sad for the poor little duckling.
One evening, just as the sun set amid radiant clouds, there came a large flock of beautiful birds out of the bushes. The duckling had never seen any like them before. They were swans, and they curved their graceful necks, while their soft plumage shown with dazzling whiteness. They uttered a singular cry, as they spread their glorious wings and flew away from those cold regions to warmer countries across the sea. As they mounted higher and higher in the air, the ugly little duckling felt quite a strange sensation as he watched them. He whirled himself in the water like a wheel, stretched out his neck towards them, and uttered a cry so strange that it frightened himself. Could he ever forget those beautiful, happy birds; and when at last they were out of his sight, he dived under the water, and rose again almost beside himself with excitement. He knew not the names of these birds, nor where they had flown, but he felt towards them as he had never felt for any other bird in the world. He was not envious of these beautiful creatures, but wished to be as lovely as they. Poor ugly creature, how gladly he would have lived even with the ducks had they only given him encouragement.
The winter grew colder and colder; he was obliged to swim about on the water to keep it from freezing, but every night the space on which he swam became smaller and smaller. At length it froze so hard that the ice in the water crackled as he moved, and the duckling had to paddle with his legs as well as he could, to keep the space from closing up. He became exhausted at last, and lay still and helpless, frozen fast in the ice.
< 8 >
Early in the morning, a peasant, who was passing by, saw what had happened. He broke the ice in pieces with his wooden shoe, and carried the duckling home to his wife. The warmth revived the poor little creature; but when the children wanted to play with him, the duckling thought they would do him some harm; so he started up in terror, fluttered into the milk-pan, and splashed the milk about the room. Then the woman clapped her hands, which frightened him still more. He flew first into the butter-cask, then into the meal-tub, and out again. What a condition he was in! The woman screamed, and struck at him with the tongs; the children laughed and screamed, and tumbled over each other, in their efforts to catch him; but luckily he escaped. The door stood open; the poor creature could just manage to slip out among the bushes, and lie down quite exhausted in the newly fallen snow.
It would be very sad, were I to relate all the misery and privations which the poor little duckling endured during the hard winter; but when it had passed, he found himself lying one morning in a moor, amongst the rushes. He felt the warm sun shining, and heard the lark singing, and saw that all around was beautiful spring. Then the young bird felt that his wings were strong, as he flapped them against his sides, and rose high into the air. They bore him onwards, until he found himself in a large garden, before he well knew how it had happened. The apple-trees were in full blossom, and the fragrant elders bent their long green branches down to the stream which wound round a smooth lawn. Everything looked beautiful, in the freshness of early spring. From a thicket close by came three beautiful white swans, rustling their feathers, and swimming lightly over the smooth water. The duckling remembered the lovely birds, and felt more strangely unhappy than ever.
"I will fly to those royal birds," he exclaimed, "and they will kill me, because I am so ugly, and dare to approach them; but it does not matter: better be killed by them than pecked by the ducks, beaten by the hens, pushed about by the maiden who feeds the poultry, or starved with hunger in the winter."
< 9 >
Then he flew to the water, and swam towards the beautiful swans. The moment they espied the stranger, they rushed to meet him with outstretched wings.
"Kill me," said the poor bird; and he bent his head down to the surface of the water, and awaited death.
But what did he see in the clear stream below? His own image; no longer a dark, gray bird, ugly and disagreeable to look at, but a graceful and beautiful swan. To be born in a duck's nest, in a farmyard, is of no consequence to a bird, if it is hatched from a swan's egg. He now felt glad at having suffered sorrow and trouble, because it enabled him to enjoy so much better all the pleasure and happiness around him; for the great swans swam round the new-comer, and stroked his neck with their beaks, as a welcome.
Into the garden presently came some little children, and threw bread and cake into the water.
"See," cried the youngest, "there is a new one;" and the rest were delighted, and ran to their father and mother, dancing and clapping their hands, and shouting joyously, "There is another swan come; a new one has arrived."
Then they threw more bread and cake into the water, and said, "The new one is the most beautiful of all; he is so young and pretty." And the old swans bowed their heads before him.
Then he felt quite ashamed, and hid his head under his wing; for he did not know what to do, he was so happy, and yet not at all proud. He had been persecuted and despised for his ugliness, and now he heard them say he was the most beautiful of all the birds. Even the elder-tree bent down its bows into the water before him, and the sun shone warm and bright. Then he rustled his feathers, curved his slender neck, and cried joyfully, from the depths of his heart, "I never dreamed of such happiness as this, while I was an ugly duckling."

Sabtu, 25 September 2010

Pengolongan hukum

Penggolongan Hukum

v     Berdasarkan Wujudnya
ü      Hukum tertulis, yaitu Hukum yang dapat kita temui dalam bentuk tulisan dan dicantumkan dalam berbagai paraturan Negara.
ü      Hukum tidak tertulis, yaitu Hukum yang masih hidup dan tumbuh dalam kayakinan masyarakat tertentu. Dalam praktik ketatanegaraan Hukum tidak tertulis disebut konvensi.
v     Berdasarkan Ruang atau wilayah Berlakunya.
ü      Hukum Lokal, yaitu Hukum yang berlaku di daerah tertentu saja.
ü      Hukum Nasional, yaitu Hukum yang berlaku di Negara tertentu.
ü      Hukum Internasional, yaitu Hukum yang berlaku mengatur hubungan antara dua Negara atau lebih
v     Berdasarkan Waktu dan Diaturnya.
ü      Hukum yang berlaku pada saat ini disebut juga Hukum positif.
ü      Hukum yang berlaku pada waktu yang akan dating
ü      Hukum antarwaktu, yaitu Hukum yang mengatur suatu peristiwa yang menyangkut Hukum yang berlaku saat ini dan Hukum yang berlaku pada masa lalu.
v     Berdasarkan Isi Masalah yang Diaturnya.
Berdasarkan isi masalah yang diaturnya, Hukum dapat dibedakan menjadi Hukum public dan Hukum privat.
  • Hukum Publik, yaitu Hukum yang mengatur hubungan antar warga Negara dan Negara yang menyangkut kepentingan umum. Dalam arti formal, Hukum public mencangkup Hukum Tata Negara, Hukum Administrasi Negara, Hukum Pidana dan Hukum Acara.
a) Hukum Tata Negara
Hukum Tata Negara mempelajari Negara tertentu, seprti bentuk Negara, bentuk pemerintahan, hak-hak asasi warga Negara, alat-alat perlengkapan Negara, dan sebagainya. Singkatnya, mempelajari hal-hal yang bersifat mendasar dari Negara.
b) Hukum Administrasi Negara
Adalah seperangkat peraturan yang mengatur cara bekerja alat-alat perlengkapan Negara, termasuk cara melaksanakan kekuasaan dan wewenang yang dimiliki oleh setiap organ Negara.
c) Hukum Pidana
Adalah Hukum yang mengatur perlanggaran-perlanggaran dan kejahatan-kejahatan terhadap kepentingan umum yang diancam dengan sanksi pidana tertentu.
d) Hukum Acara
Disebut juga Hukum formal, Hukum acara adalah seperangkat aturan yang berisi tata cara menyelesaikan, melaksanakan, atau memprtahankan Hukum material.
  • Hukum Privat, adalah Hukum yang mengatur kepentingan orang perorangan. Perdata, berarti warga Negara, pribadi, atau sipil. Sumber pokok Hukum perdata adalah Buergelijk Wetboek ( BW ). Dalam arti luas Hukum privat mencangkup juga Hukum Dagang dan Hukum Adat. Hukum Perdata dapat dibagi sebagai berikut :
1) Hukum Perorangan
Adalah himpunan peraturan yang mengatur manusia sebagai subyek Hukum dan tentang kecakapannya memiliki hak-hak serta bertindak sendiri dalam melaksanakan hak-haknya.
2) Hukum Keluarga
Adalah Hukum yang memuat serangakaian peraturan yang timbul dari peergaulan hidup dalam keluarga. Hukum kelurga dapat dibagi sebagai berikut :
a)      Kekuasaan Orangtua, yaitu kewajiban membimbing anak sebelum cukup umur.
b)      Perwalian, yaitu seseorang tertntu yang bertindak sebagai wali untuk memelihara anak yatim piatu sampai cukup umur. Hal ini terjadi misalnya.
c)      Pengampunan, yaitu seseorang tertentu yang ditunjuk hakim untuk menjadi curator bagi orang dewasa yang diampunya karena adanya kelainan; sakit ingatan, boros, lemah daya, tidak sanggup mengurus diri, dan berkelakuan buruk.
d)      Perkawinan, yaitu mengatur perbuatan-perbuatan Hukum serta akibat-akibatnya anatara dua pihak dengan maksud hidup bersama untuk jangka waktu yang lama menurut undang-undang.
3) Hukum Kekayaan
Adalah Hukum yg mengatur hak dan kewajiban manusia yang dapat di nilai dengan uang. Yg mencakup:
a)      Hukum benda, yg mengatur hak-hak kebendaan yg bersifat mutlak
b)      Hukum perikatan, yg mengatur hubungan yg bersifat kehartaan antara 2 org atau lebih.
4)      Hukum waris
Hukum yg mengatur harta kekayaan orang telah dia meninggal. Pembagian waris di lakukan dengan cara :
a)      Menurut undang2
b)      Menurut wasiat
5) Hukum dagang
Hukum yang mengatur soal perdagangan karena tingkah laku manusia
6)      Hukum adat
Hukum yg tumbuh dan berkembang dalam masyarakat

pengolongan hukum

PENGGOLONGAN HUKUM

Hukum sebagai peraturan hidup manusia banyak sekali ragamnya. Demi memudahkan pemahaman, hukum dapat digolongkan menurut beberapa aspek. Penggolongan atau klasifikasi hukum adalah sebagai berikut.
1. Hukum menurut wujud atau bentuknya dibedakan menjadi dua, yaitu:
§ Hukum tertulis, yaitu hukum yang dapat kita temui tertulis dan dicantumkan dalam berbagai peraturan negara. Misalnya, undang-undang, keputusan presiden dan lain-lain.
§ Hukum tidak tertulis, yaitu hukum yang masih hidup dan tumbuh dalam masyarakat tertentu. Salah satu contohnya adalah hukum adat. Dalam praktik ketatanegaraan, hukum tidak tertulis disebut juga sebagai konvensi.
2. Hukum menurut daerah berlakunya dibedakan menjadi tiga, yaitu:
§ Hukum lokal merupakan hukum yang hanya berlaku di wilayah atau daerah tertentu dalan suatu wilayah negara.
§ Hukum nasional adalah hukum yang berlaku menyeluruh (melingkup seluruh wilayah) dalam suHukum internasional adalah yang berlaku secara internasional (dipergunakan atau disepakati oleh 2 negara atau lebih).
3. Hukum menurut waktu berlakunya dibedakan menjadi dua, yaitu:
§ Ius constitutum adalah hukum yang telah ditetapkan dan berlaku saat ini. Hukum yang telahdisahkan dan berlaku disebut juga hukum positif.
§ Ius constituendum adalah hukum yang masih dicita-citakan. Hukum ini belum ditetapkan sehingga masih belum bisa diberlakukan.
4. Hukum menurut isinya dibedakan menjadi dua, yaitu:
§ Hukum public atau hukum negara adalah hukum yang mengatur hubungan antara warga Negara dan negara dalam hal menyangkut kepentingan umum.
§ Hukum privat atau hukum sipil adalah hukum yang mengatur hubungan antara dua orang atau lebih sebagai individu.
5. Hukum menurut fungsinya dibedakan menjadi dua, yaitu:
§ Hukum materil adalah hukum yang berisi pengaturan tentang hal-hal yang boleh atau tidak boleh dilakukan atau bisa juga dikatakan bahwa hukum materil berisi perintah dan larangan.
§ Hukum formil adalah hukum yang berisi tentang tata cara melaksanakan dan mempertahankan/menegakkan hokum materil.
§ Hukum menurut Hukum yang memaksa adalah hukum yang memiliki sifat harus ditaati dan dilaksanakan oleh semua pihak.
§ Hukum yang mengatur (pelengkap) adalah hokum yang dalam keadaan konkret dapat dikesampingankan atau tidak dijalankan.
6. Hukum menurut sumbernya dibedakan menjadi empat, yaitu:
§ Hukum undang-undang adalah hokum yang tercantum dalam peraturan perundangan.
§ Hukum adat atau hokum kebiasaan adalah hukum yang berasal dari adat atau kebiasaan suatu daerah yang menjadi ciri khas masyarakatnya.
§ Hukum traktat adalah hukum yang dibuat oleh negara-negara yang mengadakan perjanjian antar negara.
§ Hukum yurisprudensi adalah hukum yang terbentuk karena keputusan hakim. (sumber: Sri Jutmini & winarno. 2006. Kewarganegaraan. Solo: PT. Tiga Serangkai Pustaka Mandiri)

Di samping penggolongan hukum, dikenal juga istilah lapangan hukum. Lapangan hukum adalah hal atau isi yang dimuat dalam peraturan hukum tersebut. Berdasar isinya, kita telah mengenal adanya hukum publik dan hukum privat.
Dalam hukum publik kita mengenal lapangan hukum seperti hukum pidana, hukum tata negara, maupun hukum administrasi negara. Dalam hukum privat kita mengenal lapangan hukum seperti hukum perdata, hukum dagang, hukum keluarga, hukum waris, dan hukum perkawinan.
Pengertian berbagai lapangan hukum tersebut adalah sebagai berikut.
1) Hukum pidana adalah hukum yang mengatur mengenai perbuatan berupa pelanggaran dan kejahatan yang merugikan kepentingan umum. Hukum pidana memberikan ancaman sanksi pidana bagi pelaku perbuatan itu.
2) Hukum tata negara adalah hukum yang mengatur penyelenggaraan negarac tertentu. Hal-hal yang biasanya diatur, antara lain bentuk dan susunan negara, sistem pemerintahan negara, serta alat perlengkapan negara.
3) Hukum administrasi negara atau disebut pula sebagai hukum tata usaha negara atau hukum tata pemerintahan, adalah serangkaian peraturan yang memuat cara kerja, cara melaksakan hak dan kewajiban, serta hubungan kerja antar alat perlengkapan negara.
4) Hukum perdata adalah hukum yang mengatur hubungan antar orang atau antar subjek hukum yang menitikberatkan pada kepentingan perseorangan/individu.
5) Hukum dagang berisi aturan yang mengatur hubungan antar subjek hukum dalam menjalankan suatu usaha.
6) Hukum keluarga memuat aturan yang mengatur hubungan antara seorang laki-laki dan perempuan dalam hal mereka terikat dalam perkawinan dan memiliki anak. Salah satu yang diatur dalam hukum keluarga adalah masalah perkawinan anak, harta bersama, dan perkawinan.
7) Hukum waris adalah aturan hukum yang mengatur tentang benda atau kekayaan orang yang telah meninggal dan akibat hukum bagi keluarga yang ditinggalkannya.
8) Hukum perkawinan adalah aturan hukum yang mengatur tentang persyaratan dan sahnya perkawinan.

paramecium.

Paramaecium caudatum” adalah Anggota Ciliata  yang hidup bebas. Bentuk selnya seperti sandal, ukuran kira-kira 250 mikron, mempunyai sitostom (celah mulut) pada membran plasma, dan selnya diselubungi oleh pelikel. Sel berisi dua inti sel yang terdiri atas “Mikronukleus” yang berperan dalam reproduksi   dan “Makronukleus” yang berperan dalam pencernaan


paramecium

Paramecium juga memiliki

sitoplasma, vakuola makanan (pencerna makanan), serta vakuola kontraktil (pengeluaran zat sisa). Gerakan Paramaecium caudatum dilakukan dengan menggetarkan cilianya. Gerakan cilia sulit diamati oleh mikroskop karena gerakannya sangat cepat.

Reproduksi Aseksual Paramecium

Paramecium berkembang biak dengan pembelahan biner. Tampak satu sel membelah menjadi 2, kemudian menjadi 4, 8, dan seterusnya. Pembelahan ini diawali dengan mikronukleus yang membelah dan diikuti oleh pembelahan makronukleus. Kemudian akan terbentuk 2 sel anak setelah terjadi penggentingan membran plasma. Perlu Anda ketahui masing-masing sel anak tersebutidentik dan alat sel lainnya mempunyai dua nukleus sitoplasma.


Reproduksi Seksual Paramecium Secara Konjugasi


Konjugasi Paramecium

    * Dua Paramecium saling berdekatan lalu saling menempel. Kemudian terjadi dua sel saling menempel pada bagian mulut sel. Membran sel pada sel yang saling menempel tersebut melebar dan terbentuk suatu saluran.
    *

      Pada bagian masing-masing sel terdapat mikronukleus diploid (2n) yang membelah secara meiosis menjadi 4 mikronukleus haploid (n), sedangkan makronukleusnya tidak mengalami perubahan.
    *

      Selanjutnya, masing-masing 4 mikronukleus haploid (n), di setiap sel
      membelah secara mitosis menjadi 8 mikronukleus (n).
      8 mikronukleus (n) yang terbentuk, 7 mikronukleus hancur, sehingga
      setiap sel hanya memiliki 1 mikronukleus dan 1 makronukleus.
    *

      Mikronukleus membelah secara mitosis menjadi 2 mikronukleus, sedangkan
      makronukleus lenyap, sehingga pada masing-masing sel hanya
      mengandung mikronukleus.

Rabu, 22 September 2010

selena gomez

                          selena gomez
Kehidupan awal
Selena Gomez lahir di Jakarta, Indonesia, merupakan anak tunggal dari keluarga Ricardo Gomez dan Mandy Cornett, seorang mantan aktris panggung yang melahirkan Selena saat berusia 18 tahun. Kedua orang tuanya bercerai ketika ia berusia 5 tahun, pada tahun 1997. Mandy sang ibu menikah kembali pada 2006 dengan Brian Teefy. Gomez ini dinamakan Tejano penyanyi Selena. Ayahnya adalah keturunan Meksiko dan ibu adalah keturunan Italia. Gomez menyatakan bahwa ketika ia masih kecil ia mengembangkan minat dalam akting dari menonton ibunya tampil di produksi teater. "Ibuku telah bermain di banyak acara teater, dan aku sering melihatnya berlatih. Ketika ia bersiap-siap untuk pentas dan mengenakan makeup-nya, aku duduk di belakangnya. Dia berkata, "Kamu menghafal alur cerita lebih baik daripada aku!" Suatu hari aku berkata kepada ibuku, "Aku ingin menjadi seperti Ibu!"

Karier

 Bidang Akting

Gomez memulai karier aktingnya pada usia tujuh tahun, bermain Gianna di Barney & Friends. Dia berkata bahwa dia belajar "segalanya" tentang bagaimana bertindak saat berada di acara. Seri 7 dari Barney & Friends, Selena Gomez ketika berada di acara, diadakan untuk beberapa waktu. Karena itu, episode yang menampilkan tidak Gomez udara sampai ia berada di kelas 5. Hal ini mengakibatkan beberapa kontroversi ringan / kebingungan mengenai apakah ia berada di Barney di kelas 5 atau kelas 1.Ia kemudian memiliki peran kecil dalam Spy Kids 3-D: Game Over dan film TV Walker, Texas Ranger: Trial By Fire. Pada tahun 2004, Gomez ditemukan oleh Disney Channel di kepanduan lebar sebuah bangsa.Gomez muncul sebagai bintang tamu di The Suite Life of Zack & Cody dan telah muncul sebagai bintang tamu - yang kemudian berubah menjadi peran berulang - Hannah Montana dari musim dua sampai tiga. Pada awal 2007 Gomez berperan dalam serial Disney Channel Wizards of Waverly Place sebagai salah satu dari tiga karakter utama, Alex Russo.
Pada tahun 2008, Gomez muncul di lain Cinderella Story, VersiDVD sequel tahun 2004 Hilary Duff film, berlawanan Drew Seeley. Dia juga memiliki peran sulih suara kecil sebagai salah satu Walikota sembilan puluh enam anak perempuan di Horton Hears a Who! yang dirilis pada bulan Maret tahun itu. Pada bulan April, Lacey Rose, Forbes Gomez sebagai peringkat kelima pada "Delapan Hot Kid Bintang To Watch" daftar; dan Rose digambarkan telah Gomez sebagai "seorang remaja multitalenta". [11] Pada bulan Juni, 2009, Gomez muncul di yang dibuat untuk film televisi Disney Channel, Program Perlindungan Putri dengan sahabatnya Demi Lovato. [12] Pada 28 Agustus, satu bulan setelah muncul dalam Program Perlindungan Putri, Gomez muncul di Wizards of Waverly Place: The Movie, yang dibuat untuk -film televisi berdasarkan acara itu.
Pada tahun 2009, Gomez muncul sebagai bintang tamu sebagai dirinya dalam satu episode, dari Lovato's Disney Channel televisi Sonny Dengan Chance, berjudul "Battle of The Network Stars". Gomez, bersama dengan dua anggota cast Wizards of Waverly Place muncul di televisi tiga arah cross-over dengan Hannah Montana episode dan The Suite Life on Deck, berjudul Wizards di Deck dengan Hannah Montana. Pada Februari 2009, Gomez ditandatangani pada bintang sebagai salah satu dari dua perempuan dan memimpin dalam Ramona Beezus film adaptasi dari novel anak-anak seri oleh Beverly Cleary. Pada bulan Oktober, 2009, hal itu menegaskan bahwa Gomez adalah bintang dilampirkan sebagai pemimpin dalam What Boys Want.

Musik

Pada tahun 2008, Gomez menyanyikan lagu "Cruella de Vil"- termasuk video musiknya - untuk album komplikasi DisneyMania 6. Gomez merekam tiga lagu untuk soundtrack Cinderella Story lainnya, yang muncul masuk Gomez Gomez juga merekam "Fly to Your Heart" untuk film animasi 2008 Tinker Bell. Pada bulan Juli 2008 - sebelum Gomez 'ulang tahun keenam belas, ia menandatangani perjanjian rekaman dengan Hollywood Records, label musik yang dimiliki oleh Disney.Pada tahun 2008, Gomez muncul di video musik Jonas Brothers "Burnin' Up". Dalam sebuah wawancara dengan Jocelyn Vena, MTV pada Agustus 2008, ia berkata tentang masa depannya karier musik bahwa: "Aku akan berada di sebuah band - Selena Gomez tidak ada barang. Aku tidak akan menjadi artis solo. Aku berpikir bahwa saya tidak ingin nama saya yang melekat padanya. aku akan menyanyi, dan aku belajar drum dan bermain gitar listrik.Pada tahun 2009, Gomez tercatat "one and the same" untuk Princess Protection Program sebagai duet dengan Lovato - mereka berdua muncul dalam film. Gomez tercatat empat lagu, salah satunya adalah penutup, untuk Wizards of Waverly Place soundtrack, hanya satu tunggal (Magic) dari album ini dirilis. Pada bulan Mei, dari tahun yang sama, Gomez adalah fitur - dengan Forever Anak-Anak yang paling sakit, pada versi duet non-album lagu "Whoa Oh!".
Gomez dengan band-nya, Selena Gomez & The Scene merilis album debut mereka, Kiss & Katakan pada 29 September 2009. Album debut di nomor sembilan di Billboard 200 dengan penjualan lebih dari 66.000 eksemplar di dalamnya 'minggu pertama rilis.Dalam album single pertamanya, "Falling Down" ini dirilis pada 21 Agustus, 2009,dan video musik lagu ini perdana setelah pemutaran perdana dunia Gomez 'TV-film Wizards of Waverly Place: The Movie pada tanggal 28 Agustus 2009. Gomez menyatakan, melalui dia kericau bahwa dia saat ini sedang mempersiapkan untuk merilis single kedua, Tentu saja.Gomez menegaskan bahwa ia bersama-menulis satu lagu pada album, yang berjudul "I Won't Minta maaf."Dia saat ini mengerjakan House of Blues 2010 Tour.

terbentuknya tata surya

TEORI TERBENTUKNYA TATA SURYA

Ada beberapa teori yang saya ketahui tentang terbentuknya tata surya. saat saya mencari hal itu saya menemukan setidaknya ada 5 hal atau 5 teori tentang terbentuknya tata surya. antara lain : TEORI KABUT, TEORY PLANETESIMAL, TEORY BINTANG KEMBAR, TEORY PASANG SURUT, TEORY AWAN DEBU(PROTO PLANET)
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TEORI KABUT

Teori Kabut disebut juga Teori Nebula.Teori tersebut dikemukakan oleh Immanuel Kart dan Simon de Laplace.Menurut teori ini mula-mula ada sebuah nebula yang baur dan hampir bulat yang berotasi dengan kecepatan sangat lambat sehingga mulai menyusut.Akibatnya terbentuklah sebuah cakram datar bagian tengahnya.penyusutan berlanjut dan terbentuk matahari di pusat cakram.Cakram berotasi lebih cepat sehinggabagian tepi-tepi cakram terlepas membentuk gelang-gelang bahan.Kemudian bahan dalam gelang-gelang memadat menjadi planet-planet yang berevolusi mengitari Matahari.

TEORI PLANETESIMAL

Teori Planetesimal dikemukakan oleh T.C Chamberlein dan F.R Moulton.Menurut teori ini,Matahari sebelumnya telah ada sebagai salah satu dari bintang-bintang yang banyak di langit.Suatu ketika bintang berpapasan dengan Matahari dalam jarak yang dekat.Karena jarak yang dekat, tarikan gravitasi bintang yang lewat sebagian bahan dari Matahari(mirip lidah raksasa) tertarik ke arah bintaang tersebut.Saat bintang menjauh, lidah raksasa itu sebagian jatuh ke Matahari dan sebagian lagi terhambur menjadi gumpalan kecil atau planetesimal.Planetesimal-planetesimal melayang di angkasa dalam orbit mengitari Matahari.Dengan tumbukan dan tarikan gravitasi, planetesimal besar menyapu yang lebih kecil dan akhirnya menjadi planet.

TEORI BINTANG KEMBAR

Menurut Teori Bintang Kembar,dahulu Matahari merupakan bintang kembar kemudian bintang kembarannya meledak menjadi kepingan-kepingan.Karena pengaruh gaya gravitasi bintang yang tidak meledak(Matahari),maka kepingan-kepingan itu bergerak mengitari bintang tersebut dan menjadi planet-planet.

TEORI PASANG SURUT

Teori Pasang Surut pertama kali disampaikan oleh Buffon.Buffon menyatakan bahwa tata surya berasal dari materi Matahari yang terlempar akibat bertumbukan dengan sebuah komet.
Teori pasang surut yang disampaikan Buffon kemudian diperbaiki oleh Sir James Jeans dan Harold Jeffreys.Mereka berpendapat bahwa tata surya terbentuk oleh efek pasang gas-gas Matahari akibat gaya gravitasi bintang besar yang melintasi Matahari.Gas-gas tersebut terlepas dan kemudian mengelilingi Matahari.Gas-gas panas tersebut kemudian berubah menjadi bola-bola cair dan secara berlahan mendingin serta membentuk lapisan keras menjadi planet-planet dan satelit.

TEORI AWAN DEBU(PROTO PLANET)

Teori ini dikemukakan oleh Carl von Weizsaecker kemudian disempurnakan oleh Gerard P.Kuiper pada tahun 1950.Teori proto planet menyatakan bahwa tata surya terbentuk oleh gumpalan awan gas dan yang jumlahnya sangat banyak.Suatu gumpalan mengalami pemampatan dan menarik partikel-partikel debu membentuk gumpalan bola.Pada saat itulah terjadi pilinan yang membuat gumpalan bola menjadi pipih menyerupai cakram (tebal bagian tengah dan pipih di bagian tepi).Karena bagian tengah berpilin lambat mengakibatkan terjadi tekanan yang menimbulkan panas dan cahaya(Matahari).Bagian tepi cakram berpilin lebih cepat sehingga terpecah menjadi gumpalan yang lebih kecil.Gumpalan itu kemudian membeku menjadi planet dan satelit.